Social Photography 4: Shahre Kurd

Recently, I traveled to the Shahre Kurd and spend some time in this city and its country sides. In this way, I have taken hundreds photos and have a lot of interviews with regional people. A few of them were proposed in following entry, which may be interesting for you.




A Shepherd, who rest and eat his lunch, "Ghormeh Sabzi"
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Baba Heidar)







Three Aboriginal Teenagers in a previous domestic propaganda centre

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Baba Heidar)








Chador (Mobile home) of Nomad People
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Kuhrang)





A Nomad Child
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Kuhrang)








A Regional Girl
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Kuhrang)






A Bakhtiary Salesman
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)






A Ttraditional Spice: Golpar

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)






Photographer & Regional People
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)




Two Bakhtiary Guys with their Cell Phone

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)






Regional Homes

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)



A Novel Social W.C as a Social Table with a lot of representation

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Dimeh Village)




.....

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Shahre Kurd, Ferdousi Square)





Fashions

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Millad Market)






Female Fashions

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Millad Market)



Aboriginal Women

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Ferdousi Square)


Cloth Store Decoration
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Millad Market)




A toy Shop in Shahr-e Kord
(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Millad Market)



A Street Peddler

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Ferdousi Square)




Great Mosque of Shahre Kurd

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008)





An Individual Book Binded Quran

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Great Mosque of Shahre Kurd)




Marriage Bureau

(Sobhan Rezaee, Aug 2008, Shahre Kurd)

Social Photography 3: The Beautiful Scenes of Everyday Life in Tehran

...


This is Part 3 of my social photography essay. It shows various forms of representations of Tehranian's experiences through encounters with daily life ...
...
An American between Iranians
Elli Lester & Amu (uncle) Hassan
(Elle Lester Roushanzamir, 2008, Face Book)
..

A Love Affairs

(Sobhan Rezaee, April 2008, ISU)

A Delicious Meal in Ahar Village
(Sobhan Rezaee, August 2007, Ahar)

A Toy Store in Teharn

(Sobhan Rezaee, April 2007, Vanak Square)

Fashions in Tehran

(Sobhan Rezaee, April 2007, Vanak Square)


A Beautiful Carpet

(Sobhan Rezaee, June 2008, Valliasr St.)



Two Popular Ads: Nursing in home & Window Shade Store

(Sobhan Rezaee, August 2007, Near the Ahar Village)



A Street Theatre: Pauper & Tired Father
(Sobhan Rezaee, March 2008, Daneshjou Park)

Subway
(Sobhan Rezaee, June 2008, Tehran Subway)

Social Photography 2: Popular Advertisements

For A Good Friend,
Elle Lester Roushanzamir

Many people of my country, Iran, use from their creativity in designing their advertisements, without applying regular economic or scientific forms. These objects are hybrids, which are coming from semi-modern Tehranian Culture and economy. There are some examples of this type of advertisement, on this entry...

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Palang Chal Mountain Shelter, March 2008)
Description: Mahnaz Afshar, who is one of the most popular actress of Iran.

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Narmak Square, November 2007)

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, May 2008)
Description:
The gray photos of popular actors, who are at the top on 1970's
(Before the Revolution)
Price: Large Pictures, 500 Tomans (0.5 $), Small Photos, 300 Tomans (0.3 $)

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Darakeh Mountain, Feb 2008)
Description: A lovely Message: Nastaran Habibi, I love you; signed by Alireza

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Tagrish Square, Nov 2007)
Description:
First Ads: Boxing Training
Second Ads: A proclamation for Masculine death
...
(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Tagrish Square, Nov 2007)

Description: A proclamation for Feminine death, There is no picture of dead woman on it.
...
(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, May 2008)
Description:
First Ads: Job for women
Second Ads (Left): Lost Person
Third Ads: Epilation Centre
...
(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, Nov 2007)
Description: Cigar ads & Charge Cards of Cell Phones
...
(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Moola Sadra Street, April 2008)

Social Photography 1: Tehran's Street Peddlers


Currently, Street peddlingis a common financial practice that existsin every street and square of Tehran..... They are hawking many things such as Pants, Shirts, Underwears, Books, Films, Photoes, Fishes, Flowers...
(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, Jan 2008)

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, Jan 2008)


(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, March 2008)

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Telephone Khaneh Junction, April 2008)

(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Vanak Square, April 2008)


(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Vanak Square, April 2008)


(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, May 2008)


(Photographed by Sobhan Rezaee, Resalat Square, May 2008)

The Transition of Iranian “Sexuality Paradigm”: From Fundamentalist Period in 1980s To the New Season after the 2001



Abstract:
To Understanding the social sexuality of Iran, the author designed a model for analyzing the different aspects of it. According to him, “Sexuality” is a “Paradigm” which exists in Biocultural Context. In the “Sexuality” is a main process, which has inputs and outputs. The inputs of it are “Cultural Man” and “Cultural Woman” and the output is Reproducing the Society. For analyzing this system, He combined the AGIL Model of Talcott Parsons and Habermass’s distinction in the Public and Authority Spheres to realize it between these elements, Public Sphere part: Latency and Adaptation; Authorities Part: The Goal Attainment and Integration. In this way, the Latency was put on the centre of socialization, Adaptation defined on the issue of sex roles and practices; Integration was understood by the maintenance strategies for the sexual paradigm; and Goal attainment was analyzed by the society reproduction concept.
In this way, the paper separated in two parts: Sexuality paradigm in Fundamentalist Period of Iran in 1980s and Cyber-Sexuality paradigm in the new Era after the 2001. For understanding them, every part was analyzed in all of the four aspects of the model. Additionally, the methodology of this research is contextual analyze and documentary method. On the first area, all the sex education and family consulting books, which were written by the Iranians and published or republished in 1980s, were contextual analyzed. With documentary studding the 80 decade of Iran, the author extracted the sex roles and behaviors of Persians on that era. On the other hand, the laws, stereotypes and religious orders that were common on this period were considered and documented. Furthermore, the ideological and demographic information of the Iran from 1979 to 1989 were analyzed.
On the next step, we confront with the cyber-sexuality paradigm of Iran (2001-2008). For understanding the cyber latency of the Iranian sexuality, we take the context analyzes as the main method. However, for accessing to the research universe, we use the Google, Altavista and Parseek Motorsearches and seek to Persian weblogs and sites that put the Sex Education as their central issue. At last, 15 live sites were found. Therefore, these pages were examined by 5 kinds of factors: Internet User Appealing of Websites; Biologic Issues; Sexual Behavior methods; Medical Area; and communicative aspects of the sexuality. In regard to Adaptation area, the research divided in three parts: Internet Chat, Social Network Systems and Persian Pornography and contextual analyzes were used for realizing our complete or random samples which included: 72 Iranian profiles in Yahoo 360; 12 porno sites, 4 sex forums, 1552 pornographic images, 270 porno movie clips and 614 sexual stories, which are encoded and analyzed completely. Then, the Integration and Goal Attainment parts were regarded. In this way, the author studied the on line and offline laws, stereotypes, and religious orders, which surrounded the cyber sexual behaviors of Iranians with documentary methods. Beside, the demographic and ideological information and the relation of the Persian offline world and its representation on the on the online sphere were considered for the Goal attainment of Persian cyber space. At last, the conclusions of two parts (Fundamentalist and Cyber Periods) were compared and its clear transition of Iranian “Sexuality Paradigm” was showed.

Keywords: Sexuality Paradigm, Iran, Public Sphere, Authority

Analyzing the Darfurian Conflict

Written by: Sobhan Rezaee



Abstract:
In the largest country of African continent, Sudan, a civil war was fired on February 2003. This article decides to analyze this conflict and study several aspects of it: Government role, Janjaweed, SLM/P, JEM, International and foreign positions and Peace Process. Our survey shows that there is no way for religious context to cause such a disaster, Janjaweed is not a unified and integrated group and include different parts. SLM/A that backed from Eritrea is the largest rebel Darfurian group, which composed of Zaghawa, Fur, Masaalit and some members of other tribes. Another important rebel Darfurian group is Justice and Equality Movement, which emerged in 2001 under the leadership of the former state minister, Dr. Khalil Ibrahim that it appears to have received support from Chad and at last International positions have an influential role in the Darfurian conflict.

Keywords: Sudan, Darfur, International Positions


Outline the Country Features:

Sudan, the largest country of the Africa, set at the north east of the continent. Its area cover 2,505,810 sq km that define geographical neighbors such as Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Uganda, Libya and Saudi Arabia. Additionally, the population of this country is about 39,379,358, which included 41.6% men and 56% women who have a median age at 18.7 year old. Meanwhile, the ethnic groups of it are constructed from 52% black, 39% Arab, 6% Beja, 2% foreigners and 1% other who believe to three kind of religions: 70% Sunni Muslim (in north), 5% Christian (mostly in south and Khartoum), and 25% indigenous beliefs. On the other hand, this country is one of the most fertile land of the Africa, where concludes natural resources such as petroleum, iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold, hydropower. In addition the Nile River and its tributaries are crossing the country and preparing fertile soil for the agriculture. (Fact Book, 15 November, 2007)


Contemporary History and Politics of Sudan:

Sudan, the land of the Nile, has aged for 9 million years. However the modern Sudanese history is full of social tensions, such as civil wars, insurgence, genocide, coups… In 1820, Sudan is conquered by Turkey and Egypt. About 60 years later, Sudanese rebellions stand against the Turks and Egyptian, but on the next year, Britain invaded to the Sudan (1882) and set its dominance on this African country… On January of 1956, Sudan received to the Independence state. After this date, independent Sudan has seen three civilian parliamentary regimes (1956-1958; 1965-69; 1986-89) and three military ones (1958-64; 1969-85; 1989-Present). Each civilian regime was preceded by a transitional period (1953-56; 1964-65; 1985-86) designed for dissolution of the previous regime and the setting up of the conditions for a new one, and during which, mostly fair, general elections were formally conducted. (Sidahmed, 2005, 29)
Omar Hassan 'Ahmed El Bashir in 1989 lead a coup, and embarked a government which still remained until now. In this nineteen years (1989-2008), Sudan has experienced many political and cultural events, such as empowering the Islamic fundamentalism, the approval of new constitution in Sudan (1998), dissolving the national assembly and declaring the state of emergency for Sudan (1999), starting the oil export to China, Canada, Sweden (1999), Hunger and famine in Sudan that affected 3 million people (March 2001), Nile river flood and destruction of the thousands homes of Sudanese people (August 2001), UN sanction on Sudan government to support peace process on internal conflicts (September 2001), New sanctions of USA after 9/11 (October 2001), More than 14,550 slaves are freed under the pressures from human rights groups (2001), ceasefire between government and SPLM (2002), Government attacks SPLA again (July 2002), insurgence of two Darfurian rebel groups, SLM/A and JEM (Feb, 2003)… (BBC Timeline of Sudan; Sidahmed, 2005, xi-xxvii)


Civil War in Darfur and its Aftermaths:

Darfur is the land of six million people, who believe to Islam (Sunni). However, they are classified in two groups. One of them is “black” African people that construct their life on primarily practice sedentary agriculture and the other is Arab people who live with herding animal. Also, there is no restricted line between these two life styles. (Straus, 2005, 126)

In the February 2003, two rebel movement stand from this area and begun a new bloody war. They are come from Darfurian blacks and call themselves as Sudanese Liberation Army/Movement (SLA/M) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). Also, during 2004, some other small groups are emerged such as National Movement for Reconstruction/Reform and Development (NMRD), Korbaj, Al-Shahamah, the Sudanese National Movement for the Eradication of Marginalisation, but the most influential groups have been SLA/M and JEM, yet.

In contrast, the Sudanese government use from a proxy strategy to confront them. So, with the help of the state, “Janjaweed” is structured from Arabian people of Darfur. They have wiped out entire villages, destroyed food and water supplies, and systematically murdered, tortured, and raped hundreds of thousands of Darfurians. (Save Darfure, Sept2007, 1-2)





After beginning the conflict, Janjaweed people use from governmental arms and supports to destroy the rebels. According to US officials, 574 villages had been destroyed and another 157 damaged since mid-2003. (Straus, 2005, 127) In all, about 2.3 million Darfurians have fled their homes and communities and now reside in a network of internally displaced persons (IDP) camps in Darfur, with over 200,000 more living in refugee camps in Chad. (Save Darfure, Sept2007, 2) Additionally, Estimates of the number of people killed increased progressively from 3000 in January 6 to 10,000 in April, 7 reaching 30,000 to 50,000 in July, 2004 (Depoortere, 2004, 1) and in May 2006, was estimated that 350,000 people were killed. (Johnston, 2007, 363)… In the following part, we want to focus on the origins, features and goals of every side of the conflict:


Involved Parts:

· Government Role:
After the Independence Date (1956), the governments of Sudanese land never receive to the Weberian concept of State. According to him, a legitimate government can confine the arm power in its hands (Weber, 1922/1980). But until now, Sudan has experienced three internal wars and several coups which happened in about half century. So, these indicated that diverse arm forces have lived in this country and there is no army preemption for Sudanese state. Therefore, the current government confirmed its week position and took a proxy strategy to use from the potential internal disputes of Darfur for controlling the rebels. So, the Janjaweed has been created.

· Janjaweed:

Janjaweed is an especial name, which belong to a combination of Arabian groups that are confronted by the governmental supports to the rebellion movements. Traditionally, this name has been used in the past to describe bandits who prey on rural populations through, among other things, the stealing of cattle and highway robbery. Some authors assumed that the word of “Janjaweed” means “a devil on the horse” (e.g., Straus, 2005, 126-127; Belloni, 2006, 328; Totten, 2005 Markusen, ,280)
But in Arabic context, it is synthesis of words (جانجويد), which stands for three parts: Jan (جن) that means man; Jav (جو), in the place of rapid horsemanship; Vid (ويد) which refer to the Javad (horse), and generally means "a horseman who rides his horse, rapidly. In addition, Janjaweed is not equal to the Darfurian Arabs, because many of them are against it and also, some blacks are proponents for the Janjaweed.
Before 2003, Janjaweed as an intermediary suppression force was used in 1980’s. In the middle of that decade, Sudanese government began to arm Arab militias in order to prevent African Darfurians from joining the Southern Sudanese rebellion groups against the government. However, in 1983, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) began its armed struggle against the government of Sudan. These kinds of conflict between the Darfurians and government were happening during the 1980’s and 1990’s. Therefore, this conflict background started the fire, before 2003. (Dagne, 2007, 9) The International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur characterized this movement in three origin: one of them are the militias, which are loosely related to the Government and have received weapons and other supplies from the State. These groups, which work based on their tribal management structure, fight for governmental and personal goals. Meanwhile, we can indicate some groups for this kind, such as Irayqat and Ouled Zed subclans of the Rizeigat, Mahariya and Beni Hussein tribes and Chadian kinsmen, especially those from the Ouled Rashid, Ouled Zed and Salamat tribes. (Vehnämäki, 2006, 65) on the other hand, another part of Janjaweed is included by militias that are organized in paramilitary structures such as “the Strike Force”, the Mujahedeen or the Fursan. These groups may be headed by regular army officers, while also controlled by senior tribal leaders. And third category of militia contained members of the Popular DefenseForce (PDF) and Border Intelligence, which have a legislative basis under Sudanese law for their missions. (Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur (ICI), 25 Jan 2005, 32-34) In Contrast, as 1980’s the goal tribes, which are confronted by Janjaweed were Fur, Massaliet, and Zagawa in Darfur area.





In the summer of 2007, outbreaks of violence between some of the Arab tribes (for land and facilities) that worked together as part of the Janjaweed began to occur more frequently. This latest mutation is indicative of the ever-changing dynamic of this crisis. The United Nations recently reported that tribal and factional fighting is now killing more people than the clashes between the government or government-backed militias and rebel forces. (Save Darfure, Sept2007, 2)


· Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A):

SLM/A that backed from Eritrea is the largest rebel Darfurian group, which composed of Zaghawa, Fur, Masaalit and some members of other tribes. The goals of this group are developing a democratic Sudan and promoting distinctions between religion and state. The SLM/A claims that all post-independence Governments of the Sudan have pursued policies of marginalization, racial discrimination, exclusion, exploitation and divisiveness, which in Darfur have disrupted the peaceful coexistence between the region’s African and Arab communities. (Ibid, 38; SLM/A and JEM, Global Security.org) In March 13, 2003, Minni Arkou Minnawi the secretary general of SLM/A released a policy declaration and defined their own way: “Darfur had been an independent state from the sixteenth century to the second decade of the twentieth…If Sudan is seen as the microcosm of Africa, Darfur is the microcosm of Sudan…. However, successive post-independence regimes in Khartoum, both civilian and military, have introduced and systematically adhered to the policies of marginalization, racial discrimination, exclusion, exploitation and divisiveness… The present Khartoum junta has even created a Bantustan-type department of tribal affairs whose mission is to oversee the implementation of Khartoum’s divide and rule schemes and channel government assistance to its local allies. These policies have resulted in massive human rights violations amounting to ethnic cleansing and genocide in certain areas of all the three states of Darfur… The brutal oppression, ethnic cleansing and genocide sponsored by the Khartoum Government left the people of Darfur with no other option but to resort to popular political and military resistance for purposes of survival. This popular resistance has now coalesced into a political movement known as the Sudan Liberation Movement and its military wing, the Sudan Liberation Army.” (SLM/A, March 2003) On the following part of this declaration, Minnawi indicate to the importance of Sudanese unity, but conditioned it on “justice and equality for all the Sudanese peoples…and on full acknowledgement of Sudan’s ethnic, cultural, social and political diversity.”

Additionally, four years later, at 3 January 2007 Abdelwahid al-Nur, the leader of the rebel Sudan Liberation Movement, explained that a secular state is the only way to realize unity and equality in Sudan. According to him, “Sudan is composed of people of various religious, racial, cultural ethnic and geographical backgrounds…. To obtain equal citizenship rights to all our citizens, we strive to provide a flexible democratic structure whereby all Sudanese people can be equally included and actively represented. We consider that the state should take a secular approach, neither supporting nor denying any race, culture or religion. It is up to the citizens to follow whatever faith and values they choose and practice what rituals they please.” (SLM/A, Jan 2007)
The group has since split between Mr Minnawi, a Zagawa former English teacher, who controls the largest number of fighters on the ground and those loyal to Abdelwahid Muhamed El Nur, an ethnic Fur. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006)





· Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)

Another important rebel Darfurian group is Justice and Equality Movement, which emerged in 2001 under the leadership of the former state minister, Dr. Khalil Ibrahim that it appears to have received support from Chad. The most members of this group come from Zaghawa and pay attention on political activity and have a limited military. Additionally, its members wear yellow turbans that differenced them from other rebels. On 23 May 2004, this movement divided in two parts: JEM, which has managed by Dr. Ibrahim and NMRD that led by Colonel Gibril. On the Other hand, this movement is supported by an Islamic fundamentalist leader who was the former speaker of Sudanese parliament and the chairman of National Congress Party (NCS) and National Islamic Front (NIF) and Arab Popular and Islamic Conference Dr.Hassan Al-Turabi. (ICI, Jan 2005,39; SLM/A and JEM, Global Security.org)


Turabi is a great power who backed all the government in these three decades. Although presidents such as Numiry and al-Bashir want to control his dominance, he can continue his way, beyond them. After the Coup of General Omar Bashir in 1989, Turabi converted to the main ideologue of the state… In this way, he can gain the speaker position of the Sudanese parliament and increase his power. On the other hand, during this time, Turabi attracted Bin Laden to the Sudan and gave him and Al-Qaeda suitable facilities. (Taylor, Elbushra, 2006, 451-2) As the chairman of Arab Popular and Islamic Conference, he went out of his way to offer African Muslims from peripheral regions of Sudan, like Darfur, a means of obtaining a share of power. In 1999, when he want to pass a bill into the national assembly reducing the powers of the presidency, Mr Bashir reacted by dissolving the assembly and declaring a state of emergency and purged Turabi's supporters from the machinery of government. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006) Therefore, Dr. Khalil Ibralim, who sided with Turabi in Popular National Congress structured JEM and realease its ideological book in the name of Black Book. Still, the relation between JEM and Turabi has remained, which is why it is accused by the government of being involved in an alleged coup plot in Khartoum, which it accuses Mr. al-Turabi of masterminding. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006) We will regard Turabi’s activities and thoughts on the next part of the paper.


· Other Rebel Groups:
Beyond these two large groups, there are some rebel movements in Darfur. As we pointed above, National Movement for Reconstruction/Reform and Development (NMRD) is splinter group from JEM, which has lead by Colonel Gibril. The majority of its members are come from Kobera and Wagi subs-tribe of Zaghawa that are prominent in SLM/A. This Group is active around the Cahdian border town of Tine and in the Jabel Moun area in West Darfur state. Additionally, In Darfur area, a new group that called “Korbaj” (Whip), which composed from Arabic tribes was emerged. (ICI, 25 Jan 2005, 40) Another rebel group has the title of Al-Shahamah (Bravery) for its name. It was constructed at the September of 2004 and located in Western Kordofan state, which borders Darfur in the East. The group seeks fair development opportunities for the region. The leader of the group is one of the former alliances of Hassan Turabi, Musi Ali Hamdin. (Sudan Country Report, 2005, 130-131) The fourth group that is a branch of SLM/A has called “Sudanese National Movement for the Eradication of Marginalisation”, which formed in December of 2004. The first attack of this movement happened in December 2004 against the Sharif oil pumping station, killing 15. (Steve Gordon, 2004)



The Positions of Other Country and International Organizations:


· United States
Eleven Months after beginning the Darfur war, in January of 2004, American Senator Brownback of Kansas and Congressman Frank Wolf of Virginia went to the Darfur. They reported, “There are reports that more than 30,000 have died since war broke out in February 2003. The crisis also has created nearly 1 million refugees, many of whom have fled over the border to Chad” and called it “systematic destruction of a people or race.” (Brownback, Wolf, Jan 2004) Then, US Congress passed a resolution and declared that “crisis in Darfur to be genocide, based on the five criteria for genocide enumerated in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. (US House Congressional Resolution 467, September 7, 2004) On September 9, 2004, Secretary of State Colin Powell, in his testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, declared the atrocities in Darfur genocide: “a consistent and widespread pattern of atrocities: Killings, rapes, burning of villages committed by Janjaweed and government forces against non-Arab villagers; three-fourths of those interviewed reported that the Sudanese military forces were involved in the attacks; third, villagers often experienced multiple attacks over a prolonged period before they were destroyed by burning, shelling or bombing, making it impossible for the villagers to return to their villages. This was a coordinated effort, not just random violence… I concluded, that genocide has been committed in Darfur and that the Government of Sudan and the Janjaweed bear responsibility -- and that genocide may still be occurring.” (Powell, September 9, 2004)
On the other hand, there were some independent Americans that pursue the Darfurian problems. A lot of newspapers such as New York Times, Philadelphia Inquirer and Boston Globe beside some influential players such as Jewish Americans, African American, liberal, and religious conservative constituencies and also Holocaust Museum in Washington insist on salvation the Sudanese conflict.



· European Union
The European Parliament has not involved very much in Darfurian crisis. Therefore, Christian W.D. Bock and Leland R. Miller in their article in the Washington Post newspaper, ironically say that, “On that day the European Parliament declared that the actions of the Sudanese government in Darfur were "tantamount to genocide," and E.U. ministers threatened sanctions "if no tangible progress is achieved" in meeting U.N. demands to halt the killings. Yet nearly three months later, two things remain clear: First, Khartoum has done nothing constructive to end the slaughter and, second, neither has the European Union!” (Bock, Miller, 9 December 2004) However, European Union in May 2006 passed a resolution by a vote of 566 to 6 with 16 abstentions did urge Sudanese authorities to “end impunity and bring to justice the planners and perpetrators of crimes against humanity, war crimes and human rights” which can be “construed as tantamount to genocide.”…


· China
Although the US sanctions and the pressures of human rights organizations cause to withdrawn most of Western oil companies from Sudan, Chinese companies have accepted this risky way. Many western media claim that the oil Sudanese revenues were spent in buying Janjaweed arms, so the Chinese choice is a kind of bloody cooperation in Sudanese genocide. (Cohen, 29 Feb 2008; China & Darfur, Herald Tribune, 4 Aug 2006; Leonard Downie, 14 Dec 2006) However, Since 1999 China has invested at least $15 billion in Sudan. And nowadays eight percent of China's oil now comes from southern Sudan. In 2006, this country was China's fourth-largest foreign oil source. On the other hand, China takes 65-80% of Sudan's 500,000 barrels/day production. (Engdahl, 25may 2007)






· African Union
After the experience of the genocide of Rwanda in Africa continent, the Sudanese conflict was seen with more worry. Additionally, the consideration of United Nation and the bad reports of Sudanese situation cause to forming “The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), which seek to the peace process for Darfurian civil war. Until now, AMIS has 6171 soldiers and 1586 unarmed civil polices in Sudan. (Chin & Morgenstein, Nov 2005, 7-8) Beside, African union have organized six peace course of Sudan, which are included sixth Round of the Inter-Sudanese Peace Talks on the Darfur organized under the auspices of the African Union (AU) formally opened, today, Thursday 15 September 2005, in Abuja, Nigeria, The Fifth Round… on 12th June 2005, in a plenary under the chairmanship of Dr Salim Ahmed Salim, Special Envoy of the AU, The Fourth Round … between the Government of Sudan (GOS), the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A), organized under the auspices of the African Union (AU) on 11 December 2004… (AU, 2005, Report of the Situation in the Darfur Region of Sudan)

· United Nations and Security Council

UN Security Council is one of the main international actors for the peace process of Sudanese civil war. Until now, it has passed 22 resolution, which are concerned Darfur problem: Resolution 1784 (2007) of 31 October 2007; Resolution 1779 (2007) of 28 September 2007; Resolution 1769 (2007) of 31 July 2007; Resolution 1714 (2006) of 6 October 2006; Resolution 1713 (2006) of 29 September 2006; Resolution 1709 (2006) of 22 September 2006; 1701 (2006) of 31 August 2006 1679 (2006) of 16 May 2006; 1665 (2006) of 29 March 2006; 1663 (2006) of 24 March 2006; 1593 (2005) of 31 March 2005; 1591 (2005) of 29 March 2005; 1590 (2005) of 24 March 2005; 1574 (2004) of 19 November 2004; 1564 (2004) of 18 September 2004 and 1556 (2004) of 30 July 2004…


These resolutions have paid their attention on issues such as consideration the Government of Sudan as a threat to international peace and security, mandate of UNMIS (United Nations Mission in Sudan) and their troops and facilities, peace support operations, human rights monitoring, mandate of the Panel of Experts…

Sudanese Peace Process

Until now, five peace courses have held for Sudanese civil war, since 2003: In April 2004, Representatives of the rebel groups and the government sign a ceasefire and protocol on the establishment of humanitarian assistance in N’djamena. In August 2004, AU sponsored peace talks begin in Abuja, Nigeria, between the government of Sudan and the rebel movements, the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). In November 2004, the parties at the Abuja talks agree on two new protocols: the Improvement of the Security Situation in Darfur and the Improvement of the Humanitarian Situation in Darfur. In 9 January 2005, The Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan Peoples’ Liberation Army (SPLA) is signed to end the North-South conflict which had plagued Sudan since its independence. 5 May 2006, the government of Sudan and one faction of the Sudan Liberation Army, lead by Minni Minawi, sign the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) in Abuja, Nigeria. However, Darfur area has tortured from bloody interactions, yet. (Darfur Consortium, 2003- 2007)

Conclusions:

All the people of Darfur are Muslims. So, there is no way for religious context to cause such a disaster. The rebel movement, Liberation Army/Movement (SLA/M) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), come from Darfurian blacks. In contrast, the Sudanese government use from a proxy strategy to confront them. So, with the help of the state, “Janjaweed” is structured from Arabian people of Darfur.


Janjaweed is an especial name, which belong to a combination of Arabian groups that are confronted by the governmental supports to the Darfurian rebellion movements. Janjaweed is not a unified and integrated group and include different parts. Even, in the summer of 2007, outbreaks of violence between some of the Arab tribes (for land and facilities) that worked together as part of the Janjaweed began to occur more frequently.


SLM/A that backed from Eritrea is the largest rebel Darfurian group, which composed of Zaghawa, Fur, Masaalit and some members of other tribes. The goals of this group are developing a democratic Sudan and promoting distinctions between religion and state.


Another important rebel Darfurian group is Justice and Equality Movement, which emerged in 2001 under the leadership of the former state minister, Dr. Khalil Ibrahim that it appears to have received support from Chad. The most members of this group come from Zaghawa and pay attention on political activity and have a limited military. Additionally, its members wear yellow turbans that differenced them from other rebels.


US and UE are against the Sudanese state and under the pressure of Congressmen, senators, NGOs and Media, have tried to solve the Darfurian problem.


Although the US sanctions and the pressures of human rights organizations cause to withdrawn most of Western oil companies from Sudan, Chinese companies have accepted this risky way. Many western media claim that the oil Sudanese revenues were spent in buying Janjaweed arms, so the Chinese choice is a kind of bloody cooperation in Sudanese genocide.



After the experience of the genocide of Rwanda in Africa continent, the Sudanese conflict was seen with more worry. Additionally, the consideration of United Nation and the bad reports of Sudanese situation cause to forming “The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), which seek to the peace process for Darfurian civil war. Until now, AMIS has 6171 soldiers and 1586 unarmed civil polices in Sudan.


UN Security Council is one of the main international actors for the peace process of Sudanese civil war. Until now, it has passed 22 resolution, which are concerned issues such as consideration the Government of Sudan as a threat to international peace and security, mandate of UNMIS (United Nations Mission in Sudan) and their troops and facilities, peace support operations, human rights monitoring, mandate of the Panel of Experts…



References:


African Union (AU), 2005, Report of the Situation in the Darfur Region of Sudan, in Address of http://www.africa-union.org/DARFUR/homedar.htm

Bock, Christian W.D, Leland R. Miller, 7 December 2004, Darfur: Where Is Europe? http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A49825-2004Dec8.html

Breidlid, Anders, Education in the Sudan: the privileging of an Islamic discourse, Journal of Comparative Education, Vol. 35, No. 3, September 2005, pp. 247–263

Cobham, Alex, 2005, Causes of Conflict in Sudan: Testing The Black Book, The European Journal of Development Research, 17:3, 462 – 480

Cohen, 29 Feb 2008, Calling on China: The China-Darfur Connection, Brooking in the address of http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2004/0805africa_cohen.aspx

Crisis Group, 26 November 2007, Darfur’s New Security Reality, International Crisis Group, http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=5180

Dagne, Ted, 2007, Sudan: The Crisis in Darfur and Status of the North-South Peace Agreement, CRS Report

Darfur Consortium, 2003- 2007, timeline of the Darfur crisis and the response of the international community,http://www.darfurconsortium.org/darfur_crisis/ timeline.html

Depoortere, Evelyn, October 1, 2004, Violence and mortality in West Darfur, Sudan epimemiological evidence from four surveys, Médecins Sans Frontières, http://www.msf.fr/

Downie, Leonard, 14 Dec 2006, China and Darfur, Washington post newspaper, in address of http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/13/%20AR2006121302008.html

Engdahl, 25 May 2007, William, Darfur: Forget genocide, there's oil, Asia Times, http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/IE25Cb04.html

Engdahl, F William, 25 May 2007, “Darfur: Forget genocide, there's oil”, Asia Times, http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/IE25Cb04.html

Fact Book, 15 November, 2007, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/su.html

Gordon, Steve, 2004, Continuing Crisis In the Sudan, Political Affairs Site in this Address: http://www.politicalaffairs.net/article/articleview/494/1/57

Herald Tribune, 4 August 2006, http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/04/opinion/%20eddarfur.php

Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, 25 Jan 2005, United Nation, http://www.un.org/news/dh/sudan/cominqdarfur.pdf

Save Darfure, September 2007, The Genocide in Darfur – Briefing Paper, “Save Darfur Coalition”, http://www.savedarfur.org/page/community/post/mars/BGJ

Secretary of State Colin L. Powell, September 9, 2004, The Crisis in Darfur, http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/36042.htm

Senator Sam Brownback and Congressman Frank Wolf, June 27–29, 2004, Trip Report Darfur, Western Sudan, http://www.house.gov/wolf/images/frontimages/ fullsize/SudanTrip/Reportt.pdf

SLM/A and JEM, Global Security, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/%20para/darfur.htm

SLM/A, 14 March 2003, Policy Statement, Formal Site in the address of http://www.slma.tk/

SLM/A, 4 Jan 2007, SLM statement on the secular state, Suddan on line site in the address of http://www.sudaneseonline.com/en/article_2595.shtml

Straus, Scott, 2005, Darfur and the Genocide Debate, foreign affairs, Volume 84: 1, 123-133

Vehnämäki, Mika, 2006, Darfur Scorched: looming genocide in Western Sudan, Journal of Genocide Research, 8:1, 51 – 82

Young, John, March 2005, Sudan: a flawed peace process leading to a flawed peace, Review of African Political Economy, 32:103, 99 - 113