· Government Role:
After the Independence Date (1956), the governments of Sudanese land never receive to the Weberian concept of State. According to him, a legitimate government can confine the arm power in its hands (Weber, 1922/1980). But until now, Sudan has experienced three internal wars and several coups which happened in about half century. So, these indicated that diverse arm forces have lived in this country and there is no army preemption for Sudanese state. Therefore, the current government confirmed its week position and took a proxy strategy to use from the potential internal disputes of Darfur for controlling the rebels. So, the Janjaweed has been created.
· Janjaweed:
Janjaweed is an especial name, which belong to a combination of Arabian groups that are confronted by the governmental supports to the rebellion movements. Traditionally, this name has been used in the past to describe bandits who prey on rural populations through, among other things, the stealing of cattle and highway robbery. Some authors assumed that the word of “Janjaweed” means “a devil on the horse” (e.g., Straus, 2005, 126-127; Belloni, 2006, 328; Totten, 2005 Markusen, ,280)
But in Arabic context, it is synthesis of words (جانجويد), which stands for three parts: Jan (جن) that means man; Jav (جو), in the place of rapid horsemanship; Vid (ويد) which refer to the Javad (horse), and generally means "a horseman who rides his horse, rapidly. In addition, Janjaweed is not equal to the Darfurian Arabs, because many of them are against it and also, some blacks are proponents for the Janjaweed.
Before 2003, Janjaweed as an intermediary suppression force was used in 1980’s. In the middle of that decade, Sudanese government began to arm Arab militias in order to prevent African Darfurians from joining the Southern Sudanese rebellion groups against the government. However, in 1983, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) began its armed struggle against the government of Sudan. These kinds of conflict between the Darfurians and government were happening during the 1980’s and 1990’s. Therefore, this conflict background started the fire, before 2003. (Dagne, 2007, 9) The International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur characterized this movement in three origin: one of them are the militias, which are loosely related to the Government and have received weapons and other supplies from the State. These groups, which work based on their tribal management structure, fight for governmental and personal goals. Meanwhile, we can indicate some groups for this kind, such as Irayqat and Ouled Zed subclans of the Rizeigat, Mahariya and Beni Hussein tribes and Chadian kinsmen, especially those from the Ouled Rashid, Ouled Zed and Salamat tribes. (Vehnämäki, 2006, 65) on the other hand, another part of Janjaweed is included by militias that are organized in paramilitary structures such as “the Strike Force”, the Mujahedeen or the Fursan. These groups may be headed by regular army officers, while also controlled by senior tribal leaders. And third category of militia contained members of the Popular DefenseForce (PDF) and Border Intelligence, which have a legislative basis under Sudanese law for their missions. (Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur (ICI), 25 Jan 2005, 32-34) In Contrast, as 1980’s the goal tribes, which are confronted by Janjaweed were Fur, Massaliet, and Zagawa in Darfur area.
In the summer of 2007, outbreaks of violence between some of the Arab tribes (for land and facilities) that worked together as part of the Janjaweed began to occur more frequently. This latest mutation is indicative of the ever-changing dynamic of this crisis. The United Nations recently reported that tribal and factional fighting is now killing more people than the clashes between the government or government-backed militias and rebel forces. (Save Darfure, Sept2007, 2)
· Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A):
SLM/A that backed from Eritrea is the largest rebel Darfurian group, which composed of Zaghawa, Fur, Masaalit and some members of other tribes. The goals of this group are developing a democratic Sudan and promoting distinctions between religion and state. The SLM/A claims that all post-independence Governments of the Sudan have pursued policies of marginalization, racial discrimination, exclusion, exploitation and divisiveness, which in Darfur have disrupted the peaceful coexistence between the region’s African and Arab communities. (Ibid, 38; SLM/A and JEM, Global Security.org) In March 13, 2003, Minni Arkou Minnawi the secretary general of SLM/A released a policy declaration and defined their own way: “Darfur had been an independent state from the sixteenth century to the second decade of the twentieth…If Sudan is seen as the microcosm of Africa, Darfur is the microcosm of Sudan…. However, successive post-independence regimes in Khartoum, both civilian and military, have introduced and systematically adhered to the policies of marginalization, racial discrimination, exclusion, exploitation and divisiveness… The present Khartoum junta has even created a Bantustan-type department of tribal affairs whose mission is to oversee the implementation of Khartoum’s divide and rule schemes and channel government assistance to its local allies. These policies have resulted in massive human rights violations amounting to ethnic cleansing and genocide in certain areas of all the three states of Darfur… The brutal oppression, ethnic cleansing and genocide sponsored by the Khartoum Government left the people of Darfur with no other option but to resort to popular political and military resistance for purposes of survival. This popular resistance has now coalesced into a political movement known as the Sudan Liberation Movement and its military wing, the Sudan Liberation Army.” (SLM/A, March 2003) On the following part of this declaration, Minnawi indicate to the importance of Sudanese unity, but conditioned it on “justice and equality for all the Sudanese peoples…and on full acknowledgement of Sudan’s ethnic, cultural, social and political diversity.”
Additionally, four years later, at 3 January 2007 Abdelwahid al-Nur, the leader of the rebel Sudan Liberation Movement, explained that a secular state is the only way to realize unity and equality in Sudan. According to him, “Sudan is composed of people of various religious, racial, cultural ethnic and geographical backgrounds…. To obtain equal citizenship rights to all our citizens, we strive to provide a flexible democratic structure whereby all Sudanese people can be equally included and actively represented. We consider that the state should take a secular approach, neither supporting nor denying any race, culture or religion. It is up to the citizens to follow whatever faith and values they choose and practice what rituals they please.” (SLM/A, Jan 2007)
The group has since split between Mr Minnawi, a Zagawa former English teacher, who controls the largest number of fighters on the ground and those loyal to Abdelwahid Muhamed El Nur, an ethnic Fur. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006)
· Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)
Another important rebel Darfurian group is Justice and Equality Movement, which emerged in 2001 under the leadership of the former state minister, Dr. Khalil Ibrahim that it appears to have received support from Chad. The most members of this group come from Zaghawa and pay attention on political activity and have a limited military. Additionally, its members wear yellow turbans that differenced them from other rebels. On 23 May 2004, this movement divided in two parts: JEM, which has managed by Dr. Ibrahim and NMRD that led by Colonel Gibril. On the Other hand, this movement is supported by an Islamic fundamentalist leader who was the former speaker of Sudanese parliament and the chairman of National Congress Party (NCS) and National Islamic Front (NIF) and Arab Popular and Islamic Conference Dr.Hassan Al-Turabi. (ICI, Jan 2005,39; SLM/A and JEM, Global Security.org)
Turabi is a great power who backed all the government in these three decades. Although presidents such as Numiry and al-Bashir want to control his dominance, he can continue his way, beyond them. After the Coup of General Omar Bashir in 1989, Turabi converted to the main ideologue of the state… In this way, he can gain the speaker position of the Sudanese parliament and increase his power. On the other hand, during this time, Turabi attracted Bin Laden to the Sudan and gave him and Al-Qaeda suitable facilities. (Taylor, Elbushra, 2006, 451-2) As the chairman of Arab Popular and Islamic Conference, he went out of his way to offer African Muslims from peripheral regions of Sudan, like Darfur, a means of obtaining a share of power. In 1999, when he want to pass a bill into the national assembly reducing the powers of the presidency, Mr Bashir reacted by dissolving the assembly and declaring a state of emergency and purged Turabi's supporters from the machinery of government. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006) Therefore, Dr. Khalil Ibralim, who sided with Turabi in Popular National Congress structured JEM and realease its ideological book in the name of Black Book. Still, the relation between JEM and Turabi has remained, which is why it is accused by the government of being involved in an alleged coup plot in Khartoum, which it accuses Mr. al-Turabi of masterminding. (Martin Plaut, 5 May 2006) We will regard Turabi’s activities and thoughts on the next part of the paper.
· Other Rebel Groups:
Beyond these two large groups, there are some rebel movements in Darfur. As we pointed above, National Movement for Reconstruction/Reform and Development (NMRD) is splinter group from JEM, which has lead by Colonel Gibril. The majority of its members are come from Kobera and Wagi subs-tribe of Zaghawa that are prominent in SLM/A. This Group is active around the Cahdian border town of Tine and in the Jabel Moun area in West Darfur state. Additionally, In Darfur area, a new group that called “Korbaj” (Whip), which composed from Arabic tribes was emerged. (ICI, 25 Jan 2005, 40) Another rebel group has the title of Al-Shahamah (Bravery) for its name. It was constructed at the September of 2004 and located in Western Kordofan state, which borders Darfur in the East. The group seeks fair development opportunities for the region. The leader of the group is one of the former alliances of Hassan Turabi, Musi Ali Hamdin. (Sudan Country Report, 2005, 130-131) The fourth group that is a branch of SLM/A has called “Sudanese National Movement for the Eradication of Marginalisation”, which formed in December of 2004. The first attack of this movement happened in December 2004 against the Sharif oil pumping station, killing 15. (Steve Gordon, 2004)
The Positions of Other Country and International Organizations:
· United States
Eleven Months after beginning the Darfur war, in January of 2004, American Senator Brownback of Kansas and Congressman Frank Wolf of Virginia went to the Darfur. They reported, “There are reports that more than 30,000 have died since war broke out in February 2003. The crisis also has created nearly 1 million refugees, many of whom have fled over the border to Chad” and called it “systematic destruction of a people or race.” (Brownback, Wolf, Jan 2004) Then, US Congress passed a resolution and declared that “crisis in Darfur to be genocide, based on the five criteria for genocide enumerated in Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. (US House Congressional Resolution 467, September 7, 2004) On September 9, 2004, Secretary of State Colin Powell, in his testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, declared the atrocities in Darfur genocide: “a consistent and widespread pattern of atrocities: Killings, rapes, burning of villages committed by Janjaweed and government forces against non-Arab villagers; three-fourths of those interviewed reported that the Sudanese military forces were involved in the attacks; third, villagers often experienced multiple attacks over a prolonged period before they were destroyed by burning, shelling or bombing, making it impossible for the villagers to return to their villages. This was a coordinated effort, not just random violence… I concluded, that genocide has been committed in Darfur and that the Government of Sudan and the Janjaweed bear responsibility -- and that genocide may still be occurring.” (Powell, September 9, 2004)
On the other hand, there were some independent Americans that pursue the Darfurian problems. A lot of newspapers such as New York Times, Philadelphia Inquirer and Boston Globe beside some influential players such as Jewish Americans, African American, liberal, and religious conservative constituencies and also Holocaust Museum in Washington insist on salvation the Sudanese conflict.
· European Union
The European Parliament has not involved very much in Darfurian crisis. Therefore, Christian W.D. Bock and Leland R. Miller in their article in the Washington Post newspaper, ironically say that, “On that day the European Parliament declared that the actions of the Sudanese government in Darfur were "tantamount to genocide," and E.U. ministers threatened sanctions "if no tangible progress is achieved" in meeting U.N. demands to halt the killings. Yet nearly three months later, two things remain clear: First, Khartoum has done nothing constructive to end the slaughter and, second, neither has the European Union!” (Bock, Miller, 9 December 2004) However, European Union in May 2006 passed a resolution by a vote of 566 to 6 with 16 abstentions did urge Sudanese authorities to “end impunity and bring to justice the planners and perpetrators of crimes against humanity, war crimes and human rights” which can be “construed as tantamount to genocide.”…
· China
Although the US sanctions and the pressures of human rights organizations cause to withdrawn most of Western oil companies from Sudan, Chinese companies have accepted this risky way. Many western media claim that the oil Sudanese revenues were spent in buying Janjaweed arms, so the Chinese choice is a kind of bloody cooperation in Sudanese genocide. (Cohen, 29 Feb 2008; China & Darfur, Herald Tribune, 4 Aug 2006; Leonard Downie, 14 Dec 2006) However, Since 1999 China has invested at least $15 billion in Sudan. And nowadays eight percent of China's oil now comes from southern Sudan. In 2006, this country was China's fourth-largest foreign oil source. On the other hand, China takes 65-80% of Sudan's 500,000 barrels/day production. (Engdahl, 25may 2007)
· African Union
After the experience of the genocide of Rwanda in Africa continent, the Sudanese conflict was seen with more worry. Additionally, the consideration of United Nation and the bad reports of Sudanese situation cause to forming “The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), which seek to the peace process for Darfurian civil war. Until now, AMIS has 6171 soldiers and 1586 unarmed civil polices in Sudan. (Chin & Morgenstein, Nov 2005, 7-8) Beside, African union have organized six peace course of Sudan, which are included sixth Round of the Inter-Sudanese Peace Talks on the Darfur organized under the auspices of the African Union (AU) formally opened, today, Thursday 15 September 2005, in Abuja, Nigeria, The Fifth Round… on 12th June 2005, in a plenary under the chairmanship of Dr Salim Ahmed Salim, Special Envoy of the AU, The Fourth Round … between the Government of Sudan (GOS), the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) and the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A), organized under the auspices of the African Union (AU) on 11 December 2004… (AU, 2005, Report of the Situation in the Darfur Region of Sudan)
· United Nations and Security Council
UN Security Council is one of the main international actors for the peace process of Sudanese civil war. Until now, it has passed 22 resolution, which are concerned Darfur problem: Resolution 1784 (2007) of 31 October 2007; Resolution 1779 (2007) of 28 September 2007; Resolution 1769 (2007) of 31 July 2007; Resolution 1714 (2006) of 6 October 2006; Resolution 1713 (2006) of 29 September 2006; Resolution 1709 (2006) of 22 September 2006; 1701 (2006) of 31 August 2006 1679 (2006) of 16 May 2006; 1665 (2006) of 29 March 2006; 1663 (2006) of 24 March 2006; 1593 (2005) of 31 March 2005; 1591 (2005) of 29 March 2005; 1590 (2005) of 24 March 2005; 1574 (2004) of 19 November 2004; 1564 (2004) of 18 September 2004 and 1556 (2004) of 30 July 2004…
These resolutions have paid their attention on issues such as consideration the Government of Sudan as a threat to international peace and security, mandate of UNMIS (United Nations Mission in Sudan) and their troops and facilities, peace support operations, human rights monitoring, mandate of the Panel of Experts…
Sudanese Peace Process
Until now, five peace courses have held for Sudanese civil war, since 2003: In April 2004, Representatives of the rebel groups and the government sign a ceasefire and protocol on the establishment of humanitarian assistance in N’djamena. In August 2004, AU sponsored peace talks begin in Abuja, Nigeria, between the government of Sudan and the rebel movements, the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM). In November 2004, the parties at the Abuja talks agree on two new protocols: the Improvement of the Security Situation in Darfur and the Improvement of the Humanitarian Situation in Darfur. In 9 January 2005, The Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the government of Sudan and the Sudan Peoples’ Liberation Army (SPLA) is signed to end the North-South conflict which had plagued Sudan since its independence. 5 May 2006, the government of Sudan and one faction of the Sudan Liberation Army, lead by Minni Minawi, sign the Darfur Peace Agreement (DPA) in Abuja, Nigeria. However, Darfur area has tortured from bloody interactions, yet. (Darfur Consortium, 2003- 2007)
Conclusions:
All the people of Darfur are Muslims. So, there is no way for religious context to cause such a disaster. The rebel movement, Liberation Army/Movement (SLA/M) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), come from Darfurian blacks. In contrast, the Sudanese government use from a proxy strategy to confront them. So, with the help of the state, “Janjaweed” is structured from Arabian people of Darfur.
Janjaweed is an especial name, which belong to a combination of Arabian groups that are confronted by the governmental supports to the Darfurian rebellion movements. Janjaweed is not a unified and integrated group and include different parts. Even, in the summer of 2007, outbreaks of violence between some of the Arab tribes (for land and facilities) that worked together as part of the Janjaweed began to occur more frequently.
SLM/A that backed from Eritrea is the largest rebel Darfurian group, which composed of Zaghawa, Fur, Masaalit and some members of other tribes. The goals of this group are developing a democratic Sudan and promoting distinctions between religion and state.
Another important rebel Darfurian group is Justice and Equality Movement, which emerged in 2001 under the leadership of the former state minister, Dr. Khalil Ibrahim that it appears to have received support from Chad. The most members of this group come from Zaghawa and pay attention on political activity and have a limited military. Additionally, its members wear yellow turbans that differenced them from other rebels.
US and UE are against the Sudanese state and under the pressure of Congressmen, senators, NGOs and Media, have tried to solve the Darfurian problem.
Although the US sanctions and the pressures of human rights organizations cause to withdrawn most of Western oil companies from Sudan, Chinese companies have accepted this risky way. Many western media claim that the oil Sudanese revenues were spent in buying Janjaweed arms, so the Chinese choice is a kind of bloody cooperation in Sudanese genocide.
After the experience of the genocide of Rwanda in Africa continent, the Sudanese conflict was seen with more worry. Additionally, the consideration of United Nation and the bad reports of Sudanese situation cause to forming “The African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS), which seek to the peace process for Darfurian civil war. Until now, AMIS has 6171 soldiers and 1586 unarmed civil polices in Sudan.
UN Security Council is one of the main international actors for the peace process of Sudanese civil war. Until now, it has passed 22 resolution, which are concerned issues such as consideration the Government of Sudan as a threat to international peace and security, mandate of UNMIS (United Nations Mission in Sudan) and their troops and facilities, peace support operations, human rights monitoring, mandate of the Panel of Experts…
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